CIVIL ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT IConstruction LawWritten by: Gonzalo Garcia-villalba 08028 – 169205773 Table of Contents NEC & JCT: Philosophy and Background 3NEC & JCT: Comparison of Features 4The NEC Approach 6 Duty of Care 8Measure and Extent of Damages 9The complimentary nature of Contract and Tort 10 Bibliography111.1 – NEC & JCT: Philosophy and Background.The NEC was first published by the ICE in 1993 as a result of the discontent with the other forms of contract.
They wanted to create a contract that moved away from the traditional JCT litigating approach and could become of international use. The NEC is a contract “written by managers for managers” 18. The underlying principle is that good management, co-operation and flexibility among the parties can lead to savings in cost and time that can be shared to everybody´s benefit.NEC3 is the latest version from 2005, updated in 2013. NEC have 3 clear features:They are written in simple, plain English to facilitate understanding. They propose six main options (A-F) which vary on how to price the project, pay the contractor and allocate risks.The different parties in the contract work as a team to deliver projects on time, budget and to the best possible standard.The JCT contract is the most widely used in the UK.
It was established in 1931 to set the standard for contracts in the construction industry. Broadly speaking, the JCT is a contract “written by lawyers for architects” 18 and is written in legal terms to leave scarce space to interpretation. JCT11 is the latest version of the contract which was updated in 2016.The JCT tries to avoid the Employer unpleasant surprises and therefore establishes a pricing method, leaving the settlement for the end of the project, when the Employer is less reliant on the Contractor. Critics to the JCT approach say that it is prone to cause confrontation and frequently induces unnecessary litigation.1.
2 – NEC & JCT: Comparison of featuresProject Manager (PM) vs. AdministratorIn the NEC, the Project Manager is the leader of a team that includes all the other parties (Consultants, Contractor and Subcontractors). He runs the project on behalf of the Employer, listens to the parties and takes the main decisions.In JCT the contract administrator is the intermediary between Employer and Contractor.
Traditionally this role is assumed by the architect. He is responsible for the supervision and valuation of the work but is not entitled to interfere with the arrangements made by the Contractor as long as they do not affect the result of the project.Early Warning/Compensation vs. Notice and Loss ProcedureIn the NEC, both the contractor and the PM are obliged to warn each other whenever they become aware of something that has or could affect performance of works, rise costs or delay completion. Mistakes incurred by either party that could affect these variables, must also be communicated.Any early warning that increases the contractor’s total cost may then lead to a compensation event. If the event isn’t the contractors fault (for example weather or site conditions), it entitles him to claim for more money and/or time.
Whenever a compensation event arises, the contractor has to provide a quotation. This is basically a summary on how this event will affect the project and a proposal on how to overcome the issue successfully. In the JCT 2016, the contractor has to notify the administrator as soon as any relevant matter affecting progress or the possibility of any loss and expense has occurred or can occur. He also has to give monthly updates on the issues until there is enough information to precisely determine the full amount. This tries to avoid claims being notified long after the event has passed. However, unlike in NEC, JCT does not have a specified maximum number of days for issuing the claim. In this update, the contract administrator has time constraints while before he had no time limit.
The initial claim has to be assessed within 28 days of being notified and for every update he has 14 days to respond. Condition Precedents vs Final AccountsIn NEC, the contractor has the obligation of notifying on any compensation event within 8 weeks of becoming aware of it. If he fails to do so he will lose the right to claim any additional time/money. However, he does not lose this right if it was the PM who should have informed on the event and did not.
This procedure allows any issues to be discussed and resolved as they appear during the project instead of being left aside until the end. In JCT, those issues not agreed are left out to be reconsidered in the final account at the completion of the project. The final account is to be done no later than 6 months after the project is completed. This approach can be beneficial because revisiting the matter once the project is complete gives a much more objective view on the real extent of the problem. Sometimes issues that appear during the works seem bigger than what they actually end up being. However, once the project is completed, the parties are much less reliant on each other which can result in unfair agreement and litigation.Risk Registers vs Standard Allocation of RisksNEC3 requires the Project Manager to maintain a risk register.
Any early warning that is notified has to be included describing the risks, the actions to avoid it and which party is going to be responsible for taking those actions. Maintaining the risk register is an incentive for all parties. The PM wants to tackle early warnings effectively so the project has no delays and minimal extra costs. Moreover, the contractor does not want to lose any right to compensation and wants the project to be finished on schedule so he can be fully paid.NEC3 also offers the PM and the contractor the right to call a risk reduction meeting to which they both have to attend to discuss and offer solutions to the risks.The JCT 05 contract 15 identifies four different categories of risk:Risk of personal injury/death.Risk of damage to property other than the Works and Site Materials.Risk of damage to the Works and Site Materials.
Damage from the Excepted Risks.These are defined in the contract and the responsibility for them distributed among the Employer and the Contractor in a set way.Arbitration vs Litigation In NEC disputes are normally settled through arbitration. In arbitration, the parties agree on an arbitrator. The arbitrator then listens to both sides, their arguments and evidence, and makes a final decision to settle the issue which must be accepted by the parties.
This is a private and much quicker process than litigation. Arbitration costs are also much cheaper. Under JCT, a disagreement in the final account frequently must be settled by litigation. Civil litigation is settling disputes through court. In litigation, the parties have no say on who is going to be appointed judge.
It is a public and legal process, much more formal than arbitration. It is also a longer process which could take months or even years. The costs of litigation are higher because the legal procedures can be very expensive. Small companies tend to lose the disputes to big firms because they have smaller resources. However, unlike in arbitration, decisions can be appealed (provided certain conditions).
1.3 – The NEC ApproachThere are several aspects that make the NEC approach much more attractive than the JCT.It makes it easier to avoid adversarial behaviour. Mutual mistrust leads to a more inefficient outcome than co-operation.Its philosophy for co-operation, especially with the “gainshare/painshare mechanism” in Option C, provides a wider perspective on ideas and solutions. In this mechanism, the contractor may suggest ideas to improve the design which could cut costs and reduce the total time. This is an incentive for all parties because they will share the savings achieved.
The early warnings procedure allows any possible risks that could delay the project to be tackled immediately and be resolved during the project, not left until the end like in JCT.The risk meetings include all parties to discuss possible solutions while in JCT’s notice and loss procedure the employer just ascertains the expense of the Contractor’s solution.Settlement by arbitration is much more efficient in time and cost than litigation.Nevertheless, the NEC approach also has some drawbacks:As it is written in plain and not legal English, it is easier to understand but is also subject to misinterpretation which could cause disputes between parties.Option C also has the drawback that if there is an increment in cost the expenses will also be shared between all parties.
NEC procedures are time consuming and resource hungry. You may find there are endless unproductive meetings and communications that require much manpower.In NEC, unlike JCT, the contractor is subject to the risk of losing the right to claim any compensation events if he doesn’t notify them in time.
Settlement by arbitration cannot be appealed.2.1 – Duty of CareDuty of care is the legal obligation of ensuring the safety of others while executing any action that can possibly harm them.
A contract establishes a legal relationship voluntarily agreed between parties. Duty of care is not relevant to contract law because the obligations they owe each other are stated in the contract. It is important to understand that in contract law, due to the privity of contract, only the parties to a contract are able to sue or claim damages for breach of contract.A duty of care establishes a legal relationship to a third party whom may have a contractual relationship or be a stranger. If the activity causes harm covered by the duty of care, this third party can claim damages for tort. A duty of care is determined by:Was the harm reasonably foreseeable?Was there a requisite degree of proximity between the claimant and the defendant?Is it fair, just and reasonable to impose a duty of care? 21There are some relationships, such as employer and employee or professional and client where a duty of care has already been established by the courts. The “reasonable person”22 behaviour tests whether or not someone has broken their duty.
Whenever an individual is proven to break the duty of care he owed to someone (intentionally or unintentionally) and damage them in some way, he has been negligent. Negligence is the most common form of tort.Then, a connection between the loss and the breach must be proven. This is called causation 29.
The key test for causation is the ‘but for’ test which tries to determine if the damage was a result of the negligence occurring. It may happen that more than one party contributed to the loss, and in this case the responsibility must be distributed correspondingly.After determining causation, the foreseeability test shows the remoteness 29 of the loss. This test basically questions if a reasonable person with the same professional skills as the defendant would have foreseen the loss.
Having demonstrated these points, compensation for negligence can be claimed. 2.2 – Measure and Extent of damagesWhen the contract duties are breached, compensation can be claimed for the damages.
Accordingly to whether this compensation is pre-established in the contract or not there are two types of damages, unliquidated and liquidated.In unliquidated damages, a breach of contract occurs and the parties have no pre-calculation on payable damages. In this case the compensation will try to place the injured party in the same position as if violation of contract had not occurred. As there could be an infinite number of consequences, remoteness has to be considered. Only the losses which are reasonably considered direct result of the breach or any possible losses which both parties were aware of at the time can be recovered.
Sometimes, the contract will include a liquidated damages clause. This is a genuine pre-estimation of the required compensation for damages in case of violation of contract and a detailed explanation on how this amount was determined. If the contract does include it, then this will be the compensation paid even if the breach was of less amount. However, it must not be mistaken for a penalty clause, which is not a reliable estimate and cannot be enforced as compensation. Some contracts include these clauses in case of delays, also including an extension of time.Claiming compensation for tort aims to put the victim in the position that they would have been had the tort not been committed.
Tort law covers compensation for consequential economic loss. These are financial losses derived from a physical harm to a person or property. Usually, in tort law, there is no compensation for pure economic loss. This is the term used for pure money claims not derived from physical harm. However, there are several cases in which it is claimable. One of those is the case of Negligent Misrepresentation 27, applicable to design professionals such as architects or engineers. Compensation may be reduced because of the claimant’s conduct in cases where, even though the defendant was at fault, the claimant contributed to their own loss. This is contributory negligence 29.
In addition, sometimes punitive damages are also awarded to the defendant so his actions are not repeated. 2.3 – Complimentary nature of contract and tortContract and tort law are needed to regulate the built environment.
This is because a construction project doesn’t only affect the parties involved in the works, it affects third parties as well. Under contract law, a legal relationship is established between the employer and the contractors but parties outside of the contract have no right to claim damages. Tort law covers the duties they owe to these third parties. All the parties involving a project need to obey their obligations stated by the contracts and they must also understand that they have a duty of care to the built environment.In any project, tort claims are very common. This is due to the works affecting the people or the built environment around it, for example: neighbouring buildings being damaged, general disruption to the everyday life, blocking public spaces like roads, etc.
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